Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a life-threatening condition characterized by a rapid deterioration of previously well-compensated chronic liver diseases. One of the main obstacles in ACLF is the lack of knowledge of the pathogenesis and specific broad-spectrum treatments. An excessive systemic inflammatory response has been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of ACLF; this hypothesis involves stellate cells, which are implicated in many liver homeostatic functions that include vitamin A storage, regulation of sinusoidal blood flow, local inflammation, maintenance of the hepatocyte phenotype and extracellular matrix remodeling. However, when there is damage to the liver, these cells are the main target of the inflammatory stimulus, as a result, the secretion of the extracellular matrix is altered. Activated hepatic stellate cells raise the survival of neutrophils by the stimulation of granulocytes colonies and macrophages, which exacerbates liver inflammation and promotes damage to hepatocytes. Elevation of pathogen-associated molecular patterns is related to liver damage by different pathophysiological mechanisms of decompensation, showing ballooning degeneration and cell death with a predominance of cholestatic infection. Moreover, patients with ACLF present a marked elevation of C-reactive protein together with an elevation of the leukocyte count. Chronic liver disease is a complex pathological state with a heterogeneous pathophysiology in which genetic factors of the host and external triggers interact and culminate in hepatic insufficiency. The better understanding of such interactions should lead to a better comprehension of the disease and to the discovery of new treatment targets that will make acute decompensations preventable and even decrease mortality.
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