Clinical and Molecular Hepatology

"Bacteria"

Original Articles

Human cytomegalovirus reactivation in cirrhosis patients with acute decompensation: Changze Hong, Zuxiong Huang, Yingli He, Rongqi Wang, Jiaying Lin, Yushan Liu, Baicheng Liu, Xiaoqin Lan, Qinjun He, Wenfan Luo, Qintao Lai, Ling Zhou, Tingting Qi, Yali Ji, Miaoxia Liu, Qiaoping Wu, Yichen Yao, Weihao Liang, Xianbo Wang, Guohong Deng, Yanhang Gao, Yan Huang, Feng Liu, Xiaobo Lu, Zhongji Meng, Yuemin Nan, Hai Li, Beiling Li, Rajiv Jalan, Jinjun Chen; Clin Mol Hepatol 2025;31(4):1316-1332.
Published online July 4, 2025; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2025.0332

Background/Aims
The role of reactivation of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in determining outcomes of cirrhotic patients with acute decompensation (AD) is unknown. We aimed to investigate HCMV incidence and potential correlation with hepatic outcomes in AD patients.
Methods
Two prospective multicentre cohorts with AD patients were investigated. Patients in cohort 1 were recruited from 4 centres, while patients in cohort 2 were randomly selected from a second multicentre cohort. HCMV reactivation was established with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assay in seropositive patients.
Results
HCMV reactivation was found in 35 patients from cohort 1 (n=722) and 14 from cohort 2 (n=291), with an incidence of 4.8% in both cohorts. Bacterial infection and liver failure were independently correlated with HCMV reactivation. HCMV reactivation was an independent predictor of 90-day mortality. Among bacterial infection populations in these two cohorts, patients with HCMV reactivation had worse prognosis compared to those without. Incidence of acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) was higher in patients with HCMV reactivation compared to those without and was also independently correlated with development of ACLF. In a total of 49 HCMV reactivation cases, 8 patients were treated with ganciclovir, in whom a significantly lower 90-day mortality compared with those not treated was observed. All 3 patients who underwent liver transplantation with reactivation of HCMV died.
Conclusions
In AD patients, HCMV reactivation was common, especially in those with bacterial infection or liver failure, and they were more prone to having ACLF and 90‑day mortality. The data propose the need for active surveillance for HCMV infection in AD patients.

Citations

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Human cytomegalovirus reactivation in decompensated cirrhosis: marker of immunosuppression or contributor to severity?: Editorial on “Human cytomegalovirus reactivation in cirrhosis patients with acute decompensation”
Zhujun Cao, Richard Moreau
Clinical and Molecular Hepatology.2026; 32(2): 953. CrossRef
Correspondence to editorial on “Human cytomegalovirus reactivation in cirrhosis patients with acute decompensation”
Changze Hong, Jinjun Chen
Clinical and Molecular Hepatology.2026; 32(2): e227. CrossRef
Call for preemptive treatment of cytomegalovirus in patients with cirrhosis and acute decompensation: Editorial on “Human cytomegalovirus reactivation in cirrhosis patients with acute decompensation”
Norihiro Imai
Clinical and Molecular Hepatology.2026; 32(2): 949. CrossRef

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Liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and portal hypertension

Insertion of a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt leads to sustained reversal of systemic inflammation in patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis: Anja Tiede, Lena Stockhoff, Zhaoli Liu, Hannah Rieland, Jim B. Mauz, Valerie Ohlendorf, Birgit Bremer, Jennifer Witt, Anke Kraft, Markus Cornberg, Jan B. Hinrichs, Bernhard C. Meyer, Heiner Wedemeyer, Cheng-Jian Xu, Christine S. Falk, Benjamin Maasoumy; Clin Mol Hepatol 2025;31(1):240-255.
Published online November 21, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2024.0587

Background/Aims
Systemic Inflammation (SI) is considered a key mechanism in disease progression and development of complications in decompensated liver cirrhosis. SI is mainly driven by portal hypertension and bacterial translocation. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) insertion represents an effective treatment for portal hypertension. This study aims to investigate the impact of TIPS insertion on SI and bacterial translocation.
Methods
We prospectively included 59 cirrhotic patients undergoing TIPS insertion. Blood samples were collected at TIPS insertion and follow-up (FU) 1, 3, 6, and 12 months thereafter. At all time points, we performed a comprehensive analysis of SI including 43 soluble inflammatory markers (SIMs), and surrogates of bacterial translocation (sCD14, sCD163). To investigate long-term kinetics of SI, C-reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cells (WBC) were retrospectively analyzed in a cohort of 177 patients up to 3 years after TIPS insertion.
Results
At TIPS insertion, 30/43 SIMs, sCD14, and sCD163 measured significantly higher in cirrhotic patients compared to healthy controls. By FU6 25 SIMs and sCD14 measured at significantly lower levels compared to baseline. Interestingly, in patients with TIPS indication of refractory ascites, IL-6 decreased to levels documented in earlier stages of cirrhosis. In long-term follow-up, CRP levels significantly decreased after TIPS insertion, which translated into lower mortality in Cox regression analysis (HR 0.968, p=0.042). Notably, patients with residual ascites post-TIPS showed significantly higher CRP and IL-6 levels across all follow-ups compared to patients with resolved ascites.
Conclusions
Decreasing portal hypertension via TIPS insertion leads to a significant attenuation of SI and bacterial translocation over time.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Reply
Martin A. Kabelitz, Lisa Sandmann, Benjamin Maasoumy
Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology.2026; 24(3): 872. CrossRef
Effectiveness of controlled-expansion transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (CX-TIPS) in an interdisciplinary setting at a large tertiary center
Marlene Hintersteininger, Julia Kappel, Theresa Müllner-Buscics, Susanna Riegler, Nina Dominik, Georg Kramer, Christian Sebesta, Paul Thöne, Albert Friedrich Stättermayer, Lukas Reider, Maria Schoder, Catharina Klausenitz, Raoul Varga, Fredrik Waneck, Mic
Wiener klinische Wochenschrift.2026; 138(5-6): 144. CrossRef
Treatment response to bulevirtide is linked to amelioration of portal hypertension in patients with chronic hepatitis D
Lisa Sandmann, Mathias Jachs, Tammo L. Tergast, Lukas Hartl, Birgit Bremer, Martin A. Kabelitz, Michael Schwarz, Julius F.M. Egge, Lorenz Balcar, Benedikt Silvester Hofer, Christine S. Falk, Albert Friedrich Stättermayer, Markus Cornberg, Michael Trauner,
JHEP Reports.2026; 8(1): 101643. CrossRef
Die Darm-Leber-Achse bei Leberzirrhose
Tony Bruns, Jonel Trebicka
Die Gastroenterologie.2026; 21(1): 25. CrossRef
Der Transjuguläre Intrahepatische Portosystemische Shunt (TIPS): aktuelle und innovative Konzepte
Dominik Bettinger, Lukas Sturm, Marlene Reincke, Robert Thimme, Michael Schultheiß
Zeitschrift für Gastroenterologie.2026; 64(01): 37. CrossRef
Letter on: ‘Impact of Frailty on the Prognosis of Patients With Liver Cirrhosis Undergoing Insertion of a TIPS’. Authors' Reply
Christian Labenz, Martin A. Kabelitz, Simon J. Gairing, Lisa Sandmann, Benjamin Maasoumy
Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics.2026; 63(6): 913. CrossRef
Leberzirrhose-assoziierte Immundysfunktion (CAID)
Valerie Ohlendorf, Laura Buttler, Benjamin Maasoumy
DMW - Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift.2026; 151(04): 156. CrossRef
Timing of Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunts for Acute Esophagogastric Variceal Bleeding in Liver Cirrhosis
Wentun Yao, Chunxiu Tan, Houqiang Su, Juan Xie, Liya Huang
Hepatitis Monthly.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
The Dynamic Evolution of Lipid Profiles Following Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt in Patients With Liver Cirrhosis
Jiamin Xu, Qinnian Li, Lagan Kumar Manandhar, Bilian Zhu, Chenrui Zhang, Weimin Bao, Yingmei Tang
Portal Hypertension & Cirrhosis.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
New Insights into the Relationship Between Microplastics and Diabetes from the Perspective of the Gut–Liver Axis and Macrophage Regulation
Huasen Wang, Ben Liu, Xiangfeng Zhao
Toxics.2026; 14(3): 241. CrossRef
The role of systemic inflammation in hepatic encephalopathy: advances in inflammatory mechanisms, prevention and treatment research
Wen Wang, Ying Wen
Annals of Medicine.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Systemic inflammatory indexes as predictors of 18-month mortality among cirrhotic patients receiving transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt
Jie Cheng, Xiaobing Wang, Lihua Zhou, Xiaojia Chen, Nuer Tang, Feng Zhou, Feng Ding, Yuan Yang, Jun Lin, Liping Chen
Annals of Medicine.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Advancing our understanding of recompensated cirrhosis - the new “holy grail” of decompensated cirrhosis
Thomas Reiberger, Benjamin Maasoumy
Journal of Hepatology.2025; 83(3): 615. CrossRef
Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt (TIPS) Promotes Wound Healing in Cirrhotic Patients With Post‐Splenectomy Complications
Na Han, Xulong Yuan, Zhengcai Liu, Yuanping Xu, Shuqiang Yue, Yongquan Shi, Jun Tie
Portal Hypertension & Cirrhosis.2025; 4(3): 189. CrossRef
TIPSEMS‐VB Trial Reappraised: Infection Control, HE Prophylaxis, and Ischemic Hepatitis Considerations
Kaiyu Bian, Yujie Zhang, Xiang Ma
Liver International.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Refining Prognosis in Cirrhosis Patients With Ascites: Impact of Acute vs. Non‐Acute Decompensation
Lucie Simonis, Lorenz Balcar, Anna Schedlbauer, Marta Tonon, Nikolaj Torp, Valeria Santori, Katharina Stopfer, Jan Embacher, Christian Sebesta, Leonie Hafner, Benedikt Silvester Hofer, Nina Dominik, Georg Kramer, Paul Thöne, Michael Trauner, Aleksander Kr
Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics.2025; 62(11-12): 1202. CrossRef
Editorial: Redefining Decompensation in Cirrhosis—More Than an Academic Playground?
Anja Tiede, Benjamin Maasoumy
Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics.2025; 62(11-12): 1230. CrossRef
Editorial: Redefining Decompensation in Cirrhosis—More Than an Academic Playground? Authors' Reply
Lucie Simonis, Lorenz Balcar, Georg Kramer, Thomas Reiberger, Georg Semmler
Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics.2025; 62(11-12): 1233. CrossRef
Prävention der Dekompensation bei einer fortgeschrittenen Lebererkrankung
Marlene Reincke, Lukas Sturm, Robert Thimme, Dominik Bettinger
DMW - Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift.2025; 150(21): 1267. CrossRef
Neurofilament Light Chains in Serum Predict Post—Transjugular Intrahepatic Portosystemic Shunt Hepatic Encephalopathy
Christian Labenz, Eva Maria Schleicher, Myriam Meineck, Martin A. Kabelitz, Alena F. Ehrenbauer, Anja Tiede, Jim B. Mauz, Sven Danneberg, Michael Bernhard Pitton, Falk Steffen, Julia Weinmann‐Menke, Peter Robert Galle, Stefan Bittner, Felix Lüssi, Jens Uw
MedComm.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
Decreasing interleukin-6 levels after TIPS predict outcomes in decompensated cirrhosis
Andrea Kornfehl, Anja Tiede, Paul Hemetsberger, Julia Kappel, Theresa Müllner-Bucsics, Lena Stockhoff, Hannah Rieland, Lukas Reider, Nina Dominik, Georg Kramer, Michael Trauner, Mattias Mandorfer, Christine Falk, Benjamin Maasoumy, Thomas Reiberger, Lukas
JHEP Reports.2024; : 101308. CrossRef

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Reappraisal of sepsis-3 and CLIF-SOFA as predictors of mortality in patients with cirrhosis and infection presenting to the emergency department: A multicenter study: Ji Hyun Kim, Baek Gyu Jun, Minjong Lee, Hye Ah Lee, Tae Suk Kim, Jeong Won Heo, Da Hye Moon, Seong Hee Kang, Ki Tae Suk, Moon Young Kim, Young Don Kim, Gab Jin Cheon, Soon Koo Baik, Dong Joon Kim, Dae Hee Choi; Clin Mol Hepatol 2022;28(3):540-552.
Published online May 6, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2021.0169

Background/Aims
Sepsis-3 criteria and quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) have been advocated to be used in defining sepsis in the general population. We aimed to compare the Sepsis-3 criteria and Chronic Liver Failure-SOFA (CLIF-SOFA) scores as predictors of in-hospital mortality in cirrhotic patients admitted to the emergency department (ED) for infections.
Methods
A total of 1,622 cirrhosis patients admitted at the ED for infections were assessed retrospectively. We analyzed their demographic, laboratory, and microbiological data upon diagnosis of the infection. The primary endpoint was inhospital mortality rate. The predictive performances of baseline CLIF-SOFA, Sepsis-3, and qSOFA scores for in-hospital mortality were evaluated.
Results
The CLIF-SOFA score proved to be significantly better in predicting in-hospital mortality (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUROC], 0.80; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.78–0.82) than the Sepsis-3 (AUROC, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.72–0.77, P<0.001) and qSOFA (AUROC, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.64–0.70; P<0.001) score. The CLIF-SOFA, CLIF-C-AD scores, Sepsis-3 criteria, septic shock, and qSOFA positivity were significantly associated with in-hospital mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 1.24; 95% CI, 1.19–1.28; aHR, 1.13; 95% CI, 1.09–1.17; aHR, 1.19; 95% CI, 1.15–1.24; aHR, 1.88; 95% CI, 1.42–2.48; aHR, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.55–2.72; respectively; all P<0.001). For CLIF-SOFA scores ≥6, in-hospital mortality was >10%; this is the cutoff point for the definition of sepsis.
Conclusions
Among cirrhosis patients presenting with infections at the ED, CLIF-SOFA scores showed a better predictive performance for mortality than both Sepsis-3 criteria and qSOFA scores, and can be a useful tool of risk stratification in cirrhotic patients requiring timely intervention for infection.

Citations

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Interpretable model for early prediction of 28-day mortality in patients with cirrhosis and sepsis: a multi-cohort ICU study
Xin Xu, Jingjing Li, Haijing Yu, Jiaquan Huang
BMC Gastroenterology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Development and validation of a prediction model for in-hospital mortality in intensive care unit patients with cirrhosis and sepsis: a multicentre retrospective cohort study
Zhikun Xu, Qinhua Yang, Dongting Peng, Yichun Jiang, Yijing Su, Boru Wu, Zhiming Chen, Jiayang Huang, Xueyan Liu
Frontiers in Medicine.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Prognostic significance of lymphocyte PD-1 expression in combination with clinical scoring systems in patients with liver cirrhosis complicated by sepsis
Zhao Liu, Fengwei Shi, Nan Geng, Wen Pan, Bo Liu, Qinghua Meng
Frontiers in Immunology.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
Evaluating the diagnostic and prognostic utility of serum DLL1 in acute-on-chronic liver failure patients with bacterial infections
Juanjun Huang, Zhi Wang, Wei Zhu, Jian Chen
Frontiers in Medicine.2026;[Epub] CrossRef
A Serum DLL1 and CRP dual-marker model for bacterial infection detection in patients with decompensated cirrhosis: A dual-cohort diagnostic study
Juanjun Huang, Luhu Yu, Debin Zeng, Yulin Wang, Zhi Wang, Jian Chen, Wei Zhu
Science Progress.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
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Kaiyue Zhang, Ziqun Qu, Rongyu Tang, Hongliang Dong, Jing Fan, Wei Ye
BMC Gastroenterology.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
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Sandeep Sikerwar, Sohrab Zand, Peter Steel, Arun Jesudian
Liver Transplantation.2024; 30(1): 94. CrossRef
Current Status of Prognostic Evaluation Model and Treatment of Acute-on-Chronic Liver Failure
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Advances in Clinical Medicine.2024; 14(04): 2500. CrossRef
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Aryoung Kim, Byeong Geun Song, Wonseok Kang, Dong Hyun Sinn, Geum-Youn Gwak, Yong-Han Paik, Moon Seok Choi, Joon Hyeok Lee, Myung Ji Goh
The Korean Journal of Internal Medicine.2024; 39(3): 448. CrossRef
Dynamic analysis of acute deterioration in chronic liver disease patients using modified quick sequential organ failure assessment
Do Seon Song, Hee Yeon Kim, Young Kul Jung, Tae Hyung Kim, Hyung Joon Yim, Eileen L Yoon, Ki Tae Suk, Jeong-ju Yoo, Sang Gyune Kim, Moon Young Kim, Young Chang, Soung Won Jeong, Jae Young Jang, Sung-Eun Kim, Jung-Hee Kim, Jung Gil Park, Won Kim, Jin Mo Ya
Clinical and Molecular Hepatology.2024; 30(3): 388. CrossRef
Correspondence to editorial on “Dynamic analysis of acute deterioration in chronic liver disease patients using modified quick sequential organ failure assessment”
Do Seon Song, Dong Joon Kim
Clinical and Molecular Hepatology.2024; 30(4): 1012. CrossRef
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Thomas N. Smith, Alice Gallo de Moraes, Douglas A. Simonetto
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Review

Drug induced liver injury

Drug induced liver injury: East versus West – a systematic review and meta-analysis: En Xian Sarah Low, Qishi Zheng, Edwin Chan, Seng Gee Lim; Clin Mol Hepatol 2020;26(2):142-154.
Published online December 10, 2019; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2019.1003

Drug induced liver injury (DILI) may be different in the East compared to the West due to differing disease prevalence, prescribing patterns and pharmacogenetic profiles. To review existing literature on causative agents of DILI in the East compared to the West, a comprehensive literature search was performed on electronic databases: MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and China National Knowledge Infrastructure without language restrictions. Studies which involve patients having DILI and reported the frequency of causative agents were included. A random effects model was applied to synthesize the current evidence using prevalence of class-specific and agent-specific causative drugs with 95% confidence intervals. Of 6,914 articles found, 12 showed the distribution of drugs implicated in DILI in the East with a total of 33,294 patients and 16 in the West with a total of 26,069 DILI cases. In the East, the most common agents by class were anti-tuberculosis drugs (26.6%), herbal and alternative medications (25.3%), and antibiotics (15.7%), while in the West, antibiotics (34.9%), cardiovascular agents (17.3%), and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (12.5%) were the commonest. For individual agents, the most common agents in the East were isoniazid-rifampicin-pyrazinamide (25.4%), phenytoin (3.5%), and cephalosporin (2.9%) while in the West, amoxicillin-potassium clavulanate combination acid (11.3%), nimesulide (6.3%), and ibuprofen (6.1%) were the commonest. There was significant heterogeneity due to variability in single-centre compared to multi-centre studies. Differences in DILI in the East versus the West both in drug classes and individual agents are important for clinicians to recognize.

Citations

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Original Article

Liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and portal hypertension

Predictive factors that influence the survival rates in liver cirrhosis patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: Pei Chuan Tsung, Soo Hyung Ryu, In Hye Cha, Hee Won Cho, Jin Nam Kim, You Sun Kim, Jeong Seop Moon; Clin Mol Hepatol 2013;19(2):131-139.
Published online June 27, 2013; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2013.19.2.131

Abstract
PDF

Background/Aims

Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) has been known to greatly influence the survival rate of patients with liver cirrhosis. However, the factors that affect the survival rate in patients with SBP need to be clarified.

Methods

This study enrolled 95 liver cirrhosis patients diagnosed with SBP. The laboratory findings of their serum and ascitic fluid were examined and the characteristics of the isolated microorganisms in their peritoneal fluid were analyzed.

Results

The proportion of patients with culture-positive SBP was 41.1%, and 47 microorganisms were isolated from the ascitic fluid. The proportions of cultured bacteria that were Gram negative and Gram positive were 57.4% and 40.4%, respectively. The proportions of Escherichia coli, Klebsiella species, and Streptococcus species were 25.5%, 19.1%, and 19.1%, respectively. Enterococcus species represented 12.8% of the microorganisms cultured. The overall survival rates at 6, 12, and 24 months were 44.5%, 37.4%, and 32.2%, respectively. There was no relationship between the bacterial factors and the survival rate in SBP. Multivariate analysis revealed that the presence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC; P=0.001), higher serum bilirubin levels (≥3 mg/dL, P=0.002), a prolonged serum prothrombin time (i.e., international normalized ratio >2.3, P<0.001), renal dysfunction (creatinine >1.3 mg/dL, P<0.001), and lower glucose levels in the ascitic fluid (<50 mg/dL, P<0.001) were independent predictive factors of overall survival rate.

Conclusions

HCC, higher serum bilirubin levels, a prolonged serum prothrombin time, renal dysfunction, and lower ascitic glucose levels are associated with higher mortality rates in cirrhotic patients with SBP.

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Review

Liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and portal hypertension

The role of gut-liver axis in the pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension: Yeon Seok Seo, Vijay H. Shah; Korean J Hepatol 2012;18(4):337-346.
Published online December 21, 2012; DOI: https://doi.org/10.3350/cmh.2012.18.4.337

Abstract
PDF

Because of the anatomical position and its unique vascular system, the liver is susceptible to the exposure to the microbial products from the gut. Although large amount of microbes colonize in the gut, translocation of the microbes or microbial products into the liver and systemic circulation is prevented by gut epithelial barrier function and cleansing and detoxifying functions of the liver in healthy subjects. However, when the intestinal barrier function is disrupted, large amount of bacterial products can enter into the liver and systemic circulation and induce inflammation through their receptors. Nowadays, there have been various reports suggesting the role of gut flora and bacterial translocation in the pathogenesis of chronic liver disease and portal hypertension. This review summarizes the current knowledge about bacterial translocation and its contribution to the pathogenesis of chronic liver diseases and portal hypertension.

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Original Articles

Tumor Necrosis Factor-α and Interleukin-6 in Ascitic Fluid and Plasma in Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis: Moo In Park,Byung Cheol Song,Soo Hyun Yang,Han Chu Lee,Young Hwa Chung,Yung Sang Lee,Dong Jin Suh; Korean J Hepatol 1999;5(4):314-321.

Abstract
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Background/Aims
Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is a major problem associated with liver cirrhosis which has high mortality. Increased production of inflammatory mediators, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) may be associated with development of renal impairment, one of the most important prognostic parameters in SBP. The aim of this study is to investigate the changes of these cytokines in ascitic fluid and plasma in patients with SBP and the relationship between these cytokines and development of renal impairment. Methods: Forty patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites were studied 21 with SBP and 19 with sterile ascites. TNF-α and IL-6 levels in ascitic fluid and plasma were determined by ELISA at the time of diagnosis in both groups and 48 hours after antibiotics treatment in SBP patients. Results: TNF- and IL-6 levels in ascitic fluid and plasma were significantly higher in patients with SBP than those without SBP (ascitic fluid TNF-α: 2.5±0.5 vs. 1.6±0.2; plasma TNF-α: 2.3±0.5 vs. 1.5±0.2; ascitic fluid IL-6: 3.8±0.5 vs. 3.0±0.4; plasma IL-6: 3.4±0.5 vs. 2.3±0.3, log pg/mL) (p<0.001). In patients with SBP, levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in ascitic fluid and plasma decreased 48 hours after antibiotics treatment. Eleven patients with SBP (11/21, 52%) developed renal impairment. Patients with renal impairment had significantly higher ascitic fluid and plasma TNF-α levels than those without renal impairment (median 2.5 vs. 2.1 for ascitic fluid, p=0.006; median 2.4 vs. 2.0, log pg/mL for plasma, p=0.04). Although four out of eleven (36%) patients who developed renal impairment died during hospitalization, all the patients without renal impairment survived (p=0.09). Conclusion: Our results suggest that the levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in ascitic fluid and plasma are increased in SBP and elevated levels of TNF-α in ascitic fluid and plasma may be associated with development of renal impairment, thus indicating poor prognosis in patients with SBP. (Korean J Hepatol 1999;5:314－321)

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A Randomized Clinical Trial of Short-term vs Long-term Therapy in the Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis: Jeong A Lee,Hee Bok Chae,Hyun Hee Lee,Seon Mee Park,Sei Jin Youn; Korean J Hepatol 2000;6(1):102-110.

Abstract
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Background/Aims
: The standard regimen of SBP is cefotaxime 2 g IV, every 8 hours for 10 days, and the success rate is approximately 90%. It was reported that 5-day therapy was as effective as 10-day therapy, but, generally, the 5-day therapy has not been accepted in practice. This study was done to confirm whether the short-term therapy is as effective as long-term therapy, and additionally whether the opsonin capacity influences the final output of antibiotic therapy. Methods : Of the 27 patients who met strict criteria for SBP or culture negative neutrocytic ascites, 14 were randomized to a group receiving 5 days and 13 to a group receiving 10 days of single agent cefotaxime 2g IV every 8 hours. Many variables (clinical data, standard liver and kidney function results, ascitic fluid data, complement proteins) were obtained at admission, the 2nd day, and the last day(the 5th or 10th day) of the study. Results : Hospitalization mortality(7% vs 15%), recurrence rate(21% vs 0%), infection related mortality(7% vs 0%) and therapeutic response(86% vs 92%) were not significantly different between the 5- and 10-day treatment groups. The opsonic activity was not significantly different between the recurrence(n=3) group and non-recurrence group(n=26), but the indices of opsonic activity in recurrence group showed lower tendency than those in non-recurrence group. Early response rate was significantly different between the high and low protein concentration in ascitic fluid. Conclusions : Short course treatment of SBP is as effective as long-course therapy and significantly less expensive. (Korean J Hepatol 2000;6:102－110)

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Efficacy and Safety of Large Volume Paracentesis in Cirrhotic Patients with Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis : A Randomized Prospective Study: Chang Hwan Choi, M.D., Kwang-Hyub Han, M.D., Do Young Kim, M.D., Jae Hee Cho, M.D., Jae Youn Cheong, M.D., Kun Hoon Song, M.D., Chae Yoon Chon, M.D., and Young Myoung Moon, M.D.; Korean J Hepatol 2002;8(1):52-60.

Abstract
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Background/Aims
Large volume paracentesis (LVP) associated with plasma volume expansion is known to be an effective and safe therapy for tense or refractory ascites in cirrhosis. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) is one of the frequent infections in patients with cirrhosis. We conducted a study to assess the efficacy and safety of large volume paracentesis in cirrhotic patients with SBP. Methods: We randomly assigned 40 patients with cirrhosis and SBP to either treatment with LVP (21 patients) or general management (19 patients). LVP was defined as drainage of ascitic fluid of more than 4 liters in a single tap or loss of shifting dullness after paracentesis. LVP was performed within 48 hours after the diagnosis of SBP in the LVP group. Cefotaxime was given daily in doses that varied according to the serum creatinine level in both groups. Albumin was given at a dose of 6-8 g per 1 liter of removed ascites in the LVP group. Results: After seven days of treatments, the blood chemistry test, and WBC (PMN) counts and protein concentration in the ascitic fluid were not different between the two groups. Among them, the WBC (PMN) counts were decreased significantly in both groups and protein concentrations tended to increase. Durations of abdominal tenderness and pain were shorter in the LVP group but the differences were statistically not significant. Admission periods, resolution rates of SBP after seven days of treatment, complication rates and in-hospital mortality rates were not different between the two groups. Conclusions: The two treatment methods demonstrated almost the same effectiveness and safety. The symptoms were improved slightly faster in the LVP group. We concluded that large volume paracentesis is not an absolute contraindication and can be a tolerable and safe therapy in some selected cirrhotic patients with tense ascites and SBP.(Korean J Hepatol 2002;8:52-60)

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Clinical and Microbiological Characteristics of Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis (SBP) in A Recent Five Year Period: Hee Gon Song, M.D., Han Chu Lee, M.D., Yeon Ho Joo, M.D., Saera Jung, M.D., Young Hwan Park, M.D., Soo Hyung Ryu, M.D., Jung Woo Shin, M.D., Yun Jung Lee, M.D., Young-Hwa Chung, M.D., Yung Sang Lee, M.D., and Dong Jin Suh; Korean J Hepatol 2002;8(1):61-70.

Abstract
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Backgrounds/Aims
Recently, treatment failure with the third generation of cephalosporin was increasingly noted in patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP). We therefore were to evaluate the pattern of antibiotic resistance and its clinical significance. Methods: We retrospectively analyzed 580 episodes of SBP occurring between 1995 and 1999. There were 87 episodes of SBP in 1995, 222 in 1998, and 271 in 1999. The pattern of isolated organisms and antibiotic resistance, and prognostic factors for survival, were analyzed. Results: Microorganisms were isolated in 41% of total episodes. The three most frequently isolated organisms were E. coli (48%), K. pneumoniae (15%), and Aeromonas (8%). The percentage of resistant strains to cefotaxime (9%, 14%, 32%) and ciprofloxacin (13%, 21%, 32%) significantly increased. The proportion of E. coli producing extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) also increased significantly (0%, 16%, 33%). The need of secondary antibiotics such as imipenem due to treatment failure was significantly increased from 0% in 1995 to 33% in 1999. Overall in-hospital mortality, however, was not changed (20%, 20%, 24%, respectively). The factor affecting early mortality was renal failure at diagnosis. Prognostic factors for long-term survival were the presence of associated malignancy and ESBL-producing microorganisms. Conclusion: Microorgansims resistant to third generation cephalosporin and quinolone were increasingly isolated over the 5 years in patients with SBP. Measures to prevent in-hospital spread of resistant strains and indiscreet use of antibiotics should therefore be instituted.(Korean J Hepatol 2002;8:61-70)

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Prospective Randomized Trial of Intravenous Ciprofloxacin for Prevention of Bacterial Infection in Cirrhotic Patients with Esophageal Variceal Bleeding: Sung Noh Hong, Beom Jin Kim, Sun Young Lee, Choon Young Lee, Min Kyu Ryu, Moon Seok Choi, Joon Hyoek Lee, Poong Lyul Rhee, Kwang Cheol Koh, Jae J Kim, Seung Woon Paik, Jong Chul Rhee, and Kyoo Wan Choi; Korean J Hepatol 2002;8(3):288-296.

Abstract
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Background/Aims
In cirrhotic patients with esophageal variceal bleeding, bacterial infections are a frequent complication. Oral antibiotic prophylaxis decreases the incidence of bacterial infections. The administration of oral antibiotics, however, may be difficult in some cirrhotic patients with active bleeding.The purpose of this study was to assess the efficacy of prophylactic intravenous antibiotics for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with esophageal variceal bleeding. Methods: From December 1998 to September 2001, a total of 40 consecutive cirrhotic patients with Child-Pugh class B or C were enrolled after emergent endoscopic esophageal variceal ligation (EVL) was taken because of esophageal variceal bleeding. Enrolled patients were randomized into a treatment group and a control group. The treatment group (n=20) received the intravenous ciprofloxacin 200mg IV q 12 hours for 3 days while the control group(n=20) didn,t. Results: Bacterial infection developed in nine patients (45%) of the control group and only two patients (10%) in the treatment group. The incidence of bacterial infections was significantly lower in the treatment group than the control group (p<0.005). The hospital cost and length of hospital stay decreased in the treatment group compared with the control group (p<0.001). There were no differences in the hospital course and mortality within 30 days between the two groups. Conclusions: In cirrhotic patients with variceal bleeding and with Child-Pugh class B or C, the use of intravenous ciprofloxacin for 3 days after EVL was not only effective in the prevention of bacterial infections but also cost-effective. (Korean J Hepatol 2002;8:288-296)

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Changes of Ascites Nitric Oxide According to the Treatment Course in Cirrhotic Patients with Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis: Young Soo Park, M.D., Chae Yoon Chon, M.D., Hyeyoung Kim, Ph.D.*, Yong Han Paik, M.D., Si Young Song, M.D., Sang Hoon Ahn, M.D., Sinae Hong , Kwang-Hyub Han, M.D. and Young Myoung Moon, M.D.; Korean J Hepatol 2004;10(3):207-215.

Abstract
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Background/Aims
Nitricoxide (NO) is a molecule involved in vascular dilatation and pathogen suppression. It also has immunologic and regulatory functions. Liver cirrhosis is characterized by an increased risk for bacterial infections, including spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP). The role of NO in SBP which develops in cirrhosis has not been clearly established. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of NO in the pathogenesis of SBP and its clinical usefulness for prediction of disease prognosis. Methods: This study was designed to investigate the changes of ascites NO in the course of treatment. Nitricoxide metabolite (nitrites+nitrates [NO x]) was measured by chemilum inescence in 84 ascites samples obtained from 84 cirrhotic patients. Among them , the 38 patients with SBP were treated with cefotaxim e 2.0 g, q 12hr for 7 days. In 24 of SBP patients, ascites was obtained consecutively before treatment (day 0),during treatment (day 2),and after treatment (day 7). Results: Ascites NO levels in the patients w ith SBP (n=38; 82.3 14.4 μM ) were not different from those in patients with sterile ascites (n=46; 54.6 13.0 μM ). There was no significant change of NO levels in sequential ascites samples during antibiotic treatment. A scites NO level before treatment was significantly higher in SBP patients who responded to antibiotics (n=26; 101.86 μM/L) than that in SBP patients who did not respond to antibiotics (n=12; 40.03 μM/L, P =0.044). A significant direct correlation was found between ascites and serum NO levels before treatment (Pearson correlation,r²=0.86,P =0.001). Among the SBP patients, treatment response rate to antibiotics were significantly higher in those patients with pretreatment NO level≥80 μM/L in multivariate analysis. Conclusions: Ascites NO level was not different between ascites from SBP patients and ascites from cirrhotic patients with sterile ascites. There were no changes of ascites NO in SBP patients during treatment. Therefore ascites NO was not useful to predict the progress of SBP. Ascites NO levels reflect serum NO levels, and the patients with higher NO level may have better response to antibiotics. (Korean J Hepatol 2004;10:207-215)